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DİKKAT!
Boğaziçi Üniversitesi basılı eğitim
malzemeleridir. Her türlü hakkı
mahfuzdur.
Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü’nün
yazılı onayı olmaksızın hiçbir şekilde ve hiçbir
amaçla kullanılamaz, çoğaltılamaz, basılamaz, kısmen
veya tamamen yayınlanamaz. Bu
basılı malzemeyi fotokopi, optik veya elektronik veya herhangi
başka bir teknikle çoğaltanlar, içeriğini başka bir ortama
aktararak eğitim aracı olarak veya bir başka amaçla kullanan
ve/veya satanlar ve çoğaltma ve yayınlama alanında
yardımcı veya ortak olanlar hakkında derhal yasal girişimde
bulunulacaktır.
Bu yasal olmayan uygulamaları lütfen 0212 359 45 40
no’lu telefona belgeleyerek veya takibe almamızı sağlayacak
şekilde bildiriniz.
IT IS ADVISED THAT YOU KEEP YOUR ANSWERS SHORT.
ANY ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IN YOUR ANSWERS WILL BE TO YOUR DISADVANTAGE.
Click to
listen to the instructions
“Now you will hear a
lecture. While you are listening to the lecture,
you must answer the questions. The questions are in the order the information
is delivered in the lecture. Write only
short answers. Complete sentences are
not necessary.
Before the lecture begins,
you will have three minutes in which to study the questions. At the end of the lecture you will be given three minutes to go over what you
have written.”
“Now, you have three minutes
to look at the questions on the Selective Listening Question Sheet.”
SILENT LANGUAGES
You will hear a short talk about SILENT
LANGUAGES. While you are listening to
the talk, you must answer the questions below.
The questions are in the order the information appears in the talk. Write short answers. Complete sentences are not necessary. Before the talk begins, you will be give
three minutes in which to study the questions.
Write only on the lines ( ________ ). At the end of the talk you will be given
three minutes to go over what you have written.
Make sure everything you write is
spelled correctly.
The link to the lecture is
at the end of the questions
1.
What is one of the functions of silent languages?
__________________________________________________________________
2. Why are
the effects of silent languages not readily noticed?
__________________________________________________________________
3. What determines how we
express time?
__________________________________________________________________
4. If a
person is late for an appointment, he may appear to communicate ___________________________ .
5. The color patterns we use are
reflections of our ____________________________ and
______________________________ .
6. According to behavioralists,
how do warm colors make a person feel?
__________________________________________________________________
7. What affects the nature of
the communication in terms of space?
__________________________________________________________________
8. What does the European
practice of placing a desk in a central location enable a person to do?
__________________________________________________________________
9. What does the size of a
person’s office indicate?
__________________________________________________________________
10. What is territoriality?
__________________________________________________________________
11. As social creatures, why do we need responses from those around us?
__________________________________________________________________
Click to
listen to the lecture
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1. (to)
establish contact / (to) develop relationships
2. because
they are learned without awareness
3. tradition
4. hostility
5. intentions
-- feelings
6. outgoing
7. the
distance between people
8. impose
authority (more easily)
9. that
person’s importance
10. private
space
11. to
remember (that) we are not alone
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“For the second lecture you
will have to take notes while you are listening. Do not attempt to write everything down. Just
note down the main points and examples. Do not look at the questions before
the lecture is over. At the end of the lecture you will have 15 minutes to
answer the questions using your notes.”
INTERPERSONAL
AND MASS COMMUNICATION
Click
to listen to the lecture
Do NOT look at the
questions before the lecture is over
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Give short answers to the
following questions, using your notes.
Write only on the lines ( _________ ). You have 15 minutes.
1. a)
What is the channel in a conversation?
________________________________________________________________
b) What is the channel in a
newspaper article?
________________________________________________________________
2. When one attempts to “establish commonness”, one actually tries to
__________________________________________________________________
3. Why is
channel noise considered a minor problem for the media?
_________________________________________________________________
4. What may hinder a speaker’s
intended message? (State only one example)
_________________________________________________________________
5. What do people do when faced
with communications that don’t appeal to them?
_________________________________________________________________
6. Which method of message
control does a student make use of when he misinterprets his teacher’s message?
_________________________________________________________________
7. What is beyond the control of
the source in communication?
__________________________________________________________________
8. How is the
message generally conveyed in mass communication?
__________________________________________________________________
9. Why are feedback links much weaker
in mass communication?
__________________________________________________________________
10. What is the most effective
way to change someone’s opinion?
__________________________________________________________________
11. How can mass communication
integrate society?
__________________________________________________________________
12. Name two examples of fads
stated in the talk.
a)
_______________________________________________________________
b)
_______________________________________________________________
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b) the printed word
2. share information with
someone
3. the message is still
clear
4. mumbling/mispronouncing a
word / (using) complex language
5. (they) (simply) ignore
them
6. selective perception
7. what the listener hears
8. through a machine
9. the audience is unseen
10. to chat one-on-one
11. by promoting unity on basic
issues
b) new language terms / personal health
practices
***********************************************************
This part of
the
QUESTIONS
1. The movement against
animal experimentation in the 20th century changed the public
opinion towards animals significantly. As a result, _________________________________________________
were made.
2. Which thinker believed
that animals should not be treated differently from human beings when there is
the possibility of suffering?
__________________________________________________________________
6. What helped
scientists to cope with tension while experimenting on animals in the past?
__________________________________________________________________
7. Recently,
animal experimenters are more sympathetic to the needs of animals used in experiments;
however, some researchers are against giving _________________ during
experiments because they think this could eventually result in a loss of
information.
ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION
The number of animals used in laboratory experiments
has been going down in the recent years. In the
No reason
accounts for the decline, but several factors are obvious. In 1975, the animal-rights
movement exploded onto the scene with the publication of Animal Liberation by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer. The
book's depiction of research, and a series of exposés by suddenly vigilant
activists threw a harsh spotlight on scientists. In the following years, public
perceptions of animals became increasingly sympathetic. Several ethnologists
related to an enthralled audience tales of love, sorrow, jealousy and deceit
among primates. Although not so popular with scientists, such anthropomorphic
views of animals led to the passage of laws regulating experimentation.
Scientists have changed as well. Those entering the
biomedical profession in recent decades have absorbed at least some of the
concerns of the movement, if not its ideals; many are willing to acknowledge
the moral dilemmas of their craft. Some experiments that were applauded in the
1950s would not be done today because they would be deemed to cause too much
suffering. Oftentimes biotechnology is allowing test tubes to be substituted
for animals. And a few researchers, cognizant that only their expertise can
help reduce the need for animals, are avidly seeking alternatives. All these
efforts are bearing fruit.
The underlying force behind these changes appears to
be society's evolving views of animals. These perceptions owe a great deal to
philosophy and to science and very little to religion. The Bible is unequivocal
about the position of animals in the natural order: God made man in his image
and gave him dominion over all other creatures. And although Hinduism and
Buddhism envisage a hierarchy of organisms rather than a sharp division, their
influence on the animal-rights movement is limited to vague inspiration and
vegetarian recipes. The real roots lie in secular philosophy. In 1780, the
English barrister Jeremy Bentham asked what "insuperable line"
prevented humans from extending moral regard to animals.
The question became more poignant in 1859 with the
advent of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. The theory provided a
scientific rationale for using animals to learn about humans, and
It rebounded in the 1970s, with Singer's attack. A
philosopher in the utilitarian tradition, Singer holds that all decisions
should be weighed against the suffering – human and animal – caused in the
process. Not that to him the interests of humans and animals have equal weight:
life is of far greater value to a human than, for example, to a creature with
no self-awareness. But if there is something one would not do to, say, a
severely incapacitated child, then neither should one do it to an animal that would
suffer as much. Ignoring the interests of an animal just because it is not
human is, to Singer, "speciesism," a sin akin to racism. Invoking the
connections between humans and the great apes, Singer, has issued a call for
these creatures, at least, to be freed from experimentation.
Many other philosophers have lent their voices to the
animals, but few have come to the aid of researchers. One who did so, Michael
A. Fox, author of The Case for Animal
Experimentation (University of California Press, 1986), later declared
himself convinced by his critics and became an advocate for animals. Attempts
to refute Singer usually involve pointing to morally relevant criteria that
separate humans from animals. Raymond G. Frey of
Some research proponents also note that nature is
cruel: lions kill zebras, cats play with mice. Evolution has placed humans on
top, so it is only natural for us to use other creatures. This argument, which
some say elevates "survival of the fittest" to a moral philosophy,
falls prey to a proposition called the naturalistic fallacy. To paraphrase the
18th-century philosopher David Hume, what "is" cannot dictate what
"ought to be." So natural history may well illuminate why human
morals evolved into their present form, but humans can transcend their nature.
One animal advocate declares: "Killing and eating (meat) is an integral
part of the evolution of human beings. Not killing and not eating (meat) is the
next step in our evolution."
Many philosophers fall into the troubled middle,
arguing for interests or rights to be ordered in a hierarchy that allows some uses
of animals but bars others. Such distillations of animal-liberation ideas have
been finding their way into legislation. The
Rational argumentation may have influenced public
opinion, but as Harold A. Herzog, Jr., a psychologist at
Not surprisingly, the animal-liberation movement has coincided
with society's becoming increasingly distant from farms and shielded from the
reality behind dinner. Those who grew up on farms often see animals as objects
to be used, whereas those who had pets tend to express more sympathy. One line
along which attitudes divide is gender. In all countries surveyed, women are
more pro-animal and antivivisectionist than men, and three quarters of American
animal-rights activists are women. Also noticeable is a generation gap. Surveys
find that those who are older or less educated are more likely to see animals
as resources, whereas those who are younger or more educated tend to view
animals with compassion.
Public support of animal experimentation, though
higher in the
Opposition to animal experimentation is often said to
derive from lack of knowledge about science. But according to a 1994 survey led
by Linda Pfeifer of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, negative attitudes toward
animal experimentation in the
Sociologists
agree that opposition to vivisection derives primarily from sympathy for
animals. Almost all animal rightists are vegetarians; many are
"vegans," eschewing milk, eggs, leather and other animal products.
Some activists have indulged in threatening researchers, breaking into
laboratories or even arson.
Many animal experimenters are also animal lovers.
Surveys by Harold Takooshian, a sociologist at
Of course, scientists' perceptions of animals have
evolved as well. In the early 20th century Darwinian worries about emotions
were dispelled by the rise of behaviorism. Because thoughts cannot be measured,
but behavior can, practitioners such as C. Lloyd Morgan and, later, B. F.
Skinner sought to describe animals purely in terms of their responses to
stimuli. Bernard Rollin, author of "The Unheeded Cry" (Oxford University
Press, 1989), argues that at some point, the animal psyche went from being
impossible to measure to being nonexistent. The test of a good theory required
all actions to be interpreted in terms of the lowest psychological faculties
possible. In practice, this meant that a rat would not be feeling pain even if
its "writhes per minute" were being used to test the efficacy of an
analgesic. Its neurochemistry was merely inducing a physiological reflex.
Previously, it was often thought undesirable for a
researcher to have feelings about the animal under study: emotions could impair
professional judgment and also make it hard to perform certain procedures.
After the death of a favorite animal, laboratory workers learned to avoid
emotional connections with the creatures. The dissociation from the animals,
which is often likened to that of a surgeon from a patient, allowed a
researcher to function with a minimum of stress. Nowadays, many researchers are
aware of dissociation and seek objective ways to detect distress. At a 1996
meeting on the "Guide to the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals" – a
collection of guidelines that all researchers funded by the National Institutes
of Health have to follow – veterinarian Gerald F. Gebhart of the University of
Iowa stated that the pain-sensing apparatus is the same throughout the
vertebrate kingdom and offered this rule of thumb: "If it hurts you, it
probably hurts the animal."
Franz P. Gruber of the
One area of concern to American veterinarians involves
anaesthetics. These agents immobilize an animal for surgery, for six or more
hours at a time. However, a few researchers are reportedly reluctant to administer
additional anaesthetics for fear that it could kill the animal before the
experiment is over, leading to a loss of data. But without such "topping
up," the animal may become conscious during the operation and not be able
to convey, by twitch or cry, that it is in agony. And some scientists object to
using these agents because they do not want to introduce a new variable into
the experiment.
Compassionate feelings for animals also influence
studies, although researchers rarely admit to such unscientific, if creditable,
motivations. When asked about their choice of species subjects, for example,
three neuroscientists -working on monkeys, rats and frogs, respectively-
replied unhesitatingly that it was determined by the scientific question at hand.
But later in the conversation, the frog experimenter confided that he,
personally, could not work on "a furry animal," and the rat
experimenter said he would not work with a cat or even with a rat in a more
painful protocol.
Due to the efforts of animal-rights activists and the
growing awareness among scientists of the moral dilemmas caused by the
suffering of animals subjected to laboratory experiments, there has been a
notable decline in vivisection and allied practices in the last few years.
Philosophers of the past and researchers of the present have contributed to an
evolution in the general view of animals that has led to legislation assuring
their intrinsic value as sentient beings with a moral right to our concern. Of
course some scientists hold on to the view that the use of animals is necessary
to alleviate the suffering of humans, but even such experimenters more and more
seek to strike a balance between scientific imperatives and simple humaneness.
ANSWERS
1. laws regulating experimentation
2. Singer
3. a utilitarian cost-benefit analysis
4. lack of knowledge about science
5. behaviorism – stimuli
6. to avoid emotional connections with the creatures
OR
the
dissociation from the animals
7. additional anaesthetics
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The questions in this part of the test are based on the passage Perceptual Constancy. They are designed to test your detailed reading of English. Answer the questions very carefully. We expect precise answers. For example, if the correct answer is “the change in behavior” no marks will be given for the answer “the change” or for the answer “behavior”. You have 40 minutes to complete this part.
QUESTIONS
A. 1. The BaMbuti in Turnbull’s experiment could not achieve size
constancy because he was unable to correlate
.............................................................. and
......................................................
2. Which approach to perception does the
lemonade example explain?
...........................................................................................................................
3.
Which approach has been criticized for ignoring what the
constructionists emphasized?
...........................................................................................................................
4. According to the constructionists, what must
the subjects in “the tape of spoken language” example have utilized in order to
add the missing sound?
...........................................................................................................................
5. According to Kolers, which of the following
words a person utters would he remember more easily at a later time?
i) frequently used
words in everyday language
ii) words that are
hard to pronounce
iii) easily
pronounced, short, simple words
.........................................................................................................................
6. In Held and Hein’s experiment, what was found
to be necessary for the
development of
perception?
..........................................................................................................................
7. Imagine a TV cartoon program where
progressive changes in shapes are animated.
According to Mueller
and Kennedy, which one of the following cases would our perceptual system
prefer most?
i) all
unrecognizable shapes turning into recognizable ones
ii) all
unrecognizable shapes turning into partly recognizable ones
iii) all recognizable shapes
turning into unrecognizable ones.
.....................................................................................................................
8. Recent research shows that perception across
cultures differs in (Give any one.)
...........................................................................................................................
B. What does each of the
following underlined in the text refer to?
Be very precise!
9. that
(paragraph 1)
...........................................................................................................................
10. it
(paragraph 1)
..........................................................................................................................
11. it
(paragraph 5)
..........................................................................................................................
12. they
(paragraph 12)
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
Our
perception of constantly changing objects in our three-dimensional world is
characterized by a remarkable degree of constancy. A man is instantly
recognized as a man whether he is standing upright or lying down, whether he is
nearby or blocks away. Snow in deep shade looks white and coal in sunlight
looks black, even though the intensity of light striking the eye from the snow
is "less" than that from the coal. The adaptive value of this
"object constancy" is obvious. By maintaining a stable and consistent
perception of an object despite wide variations in the conditions under which
we encounter it, we are able to cope more effectively with our environment.
Size
Constancy
There
are two principal facts that work together in the determination of the
perceived visual size of an object: the size of the retinal image and the
apparent distance of the object. Of two objects that appear to be at the same
distance from the observer, the object casting the smaller retinal image
usually looks smaller. Of two objects having retinal images of equal size, the
object that appears farther away typically looks larger.
Under typical viewing conditions, our perception of
objects manifests size constancy. That is, to a truly astonishing degree, a
given object looks the same size to us whether we are near to it or far away.
When the object is farther away, its retinal image is smaller, so why should we
not see the object as smaller? The answer lies in the fact that the cues of
retinal size and distance operate as a single perceptual system. As an object
moves away, its retinal size decreases but its apparent distance, as determined
by distance cues, increases. That is, retinal size decreases with a
proportional increase in apparent distance.
Frequently,
prior experience can influence size constancy. A particularly dramatic instance
of this effect is provided by Turnbull. Working with the BaMbuti pygmies of the
Theoretical
Approaches to Perception
In tracing the chain of perception from its
start, the stimulus object, to the final link, the brain, we stress in this
article, the organizing power of the system and the remarkable manner in which
it achieves the perception of movement, space, and objects. At this point it is
pertinent to ask whether the brain is simply the passive locus of perception or
whether it plays an active and essential role in organizing, adding to, or
creating the perceptual experience.
Various
perceptual researchers have proposed somewhat differing approaches to this
question. But much more must be discovered before we can integrate
phenomenology and physiology into a genuine theory of perception. As we
describe four of the major approaches toward a theory of perception, it will
become obvious that each has a somewhat different primary focus. Since, in our
opinion, the differences among these views are often a matter of focus rather
than of basic contradiction, we shall treat them as complementary rather than
competing approaches.
The
Gestalt Approach
In
the early years of this century, a small group of experimental psychologists in
The
movement begun by these German psychologists became known as Gestalt
psychology. (Gestalt is the German word for "form" or
"shape".) The Gestaltists believed in inherent or innate laws of
brain organization. Gestaltists thought that a principle of
"simplicity" lay behind the various perceptual factors they proposed.
They asserted that any pattern involving greater symmetry, closure, closely
knit units, and similar units would seem "simpler" to the observer.
If a configuration could be seen in more than one way, such as a line drawing
that could be seen flat or as a cube, the "simpler" way would be more
usual.
The
earliest, most fundamental Gestalt demonstration was that
by Wertheimer of apparent movement (a completely convincing impression of
movement given by a rapid succession of discrete but static pictures, as in
motion pictures). In this phenomenal movement—so "real" as to be
indistinguishable from real movement—it was manifest that the whole stimulus
pattern yielded an undeniable quality of movement not contained in the
constituent stimulus parts, each one of which was static, Here was a convincing
illustration of the classic Gestalt dictum that "the whole is different from
the sum of its parts".
The
Gestaltists' prime emphasis was on the role of intrinsic mechanisms built into
the nervous system. Thus they assumed that apparent movement was the outcome of
"innate organizing tendencies of the brain".
The
influence of the Gestalt approach on the field of perception has been immense.
It has pervaded all modern conceptions of perceptual organization and
functioning. At the same time many reservations have been expressed. It has
been objected that the Gestalt approach in its preoccupation with innate
factors of organization has not given appropriate emphasis to factors of prior
experience.
The
Constructionist Approach
It
is suggested that we add remembered residuals of previous experiences to
here-and-now stimulus-induced sensations and thus construct a percept. And, the
constructionist argues, the processes of selecting, analyzing, and adding to
stimulus information from one's memory store are the bases of organized
perceptions.
Let
us now examine on diverse examples of perceptual phenomena that seem to
illustrate a constructionist view: We often fill in missing words or letters or
sounds from our memory store as we respond to written or spoken language.
Indeed, we may miss printing errors in words that we read, even when they are
as blatant as one word being printed twice in a row in one paragraph. In recent
studies similar effects were found in hearing spoken language. When part of a
tape of spoken language was deleted, and a meaningless sound substituted,
subjects said they distinctly heard the missing sound.
As
a final example, Kolers has shown
that the processes we use in analyzing both written and spoken sentences have
an important role in recognition. He found that the printing style of written
sentences was very important in their later recognition. The more difficult the
printing style was to read, the better the later recognition. Kolers suggests that reading the difficult styles required
more perceptual operations, and these operations formed the basis for later
recognition. The machinery of perception was a basis for memory. Your
difficulty in processing language is a boon to later memory.
The
Motor Approach
Following
the direction of Pavlov's early work, modern Russian perceptual research has
concentrated on the role of motor behavior in influencing and guiding
perception. In an experiment, Held and Hein raised pairs of kittens in darkness
for about eight weeks. Then they allowed the kittens regular experience in a
carousel. One
kitten fitted snugly into a gondola, only its head peeping out (the passive
kitten). The other kitten drove the carousel from a similar gondola, with head
and legs coming out.
The
"active" kitten walked around and saw visual effects corresponding to
its movement. The passive kitten was exposed to the same visual changes, but
did not make the movements that produced the visual changes. After some weeks
of this training, the kittens were tested for visually guided behavior, and
they differed noticeably. For example, the active kitten reached out a paw on
approach to a surface and blinked when an object approached like a missile. The
passive kitten did not.
Gibson's
Ecological Approach
There
is a good deal to be said for the commonsense belief that the stimuli which
reach us from the stimulus objects around us in the environment at the moment
are sufficient in themselves to permit us to perceive our environment
accurately. A systematic account that has taken off from this commonsense view
has been developed by the American psychologist J.J. Gibson. In Gibson's view,
surfaces, which are highly important in perception, are usually textured, and
texture forms the basis for our perception of surfaces. Perception of textured
surfaces Gibson calls "normal", or "ecological" perception.
Gibson
thinks that the highly structured world, with its textured surfaces, supplies
sufficiently rich and accurate information from which the observer can select.
One must select, he says, because the incoming information is so overly rich.
In Gibson's view, our perceptual selection skills get better and better with
age. In one experiment, he and E. J. Gibson studied how subjects learn to tell
the difference between things that are perceptually similar at the outset. They
propose that improvement in recognition of correct structure or pattern is an
inherently "interesting" phenomenon and is something the perceptual
system does spontaneously. In this vein, Mueller and Kennedy show that the
progressive discovery of structure is more appealing to subjects than its opposite—progressive
destruction of structure. They showed sets of cards in which scribbles either
gradually took on the form of recognizable letters as the experimenter leafed
through the sets, or gradually lost their letter shape, turning into scribbles.
Subjects preferred to watch the scribbles turn into letters rather than the
letters become transformed into scribbles. However, recent research reaffirms
the message that while basic units such as lines have a universal meaning, the
relations between objects and the interpretation of the seen world do not. They
are viewed differently by different peoples.
Although
the differences in emphasis between the four major approaches discussed are
very real (in that they point to different research questions), they are for
the most part complementary, rather than incompatible.
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ANSWERS
1. retinal size -- apparent distance
2. the orthodox (doctrine)
3. the Gestalt
4. the memory store
5. (ii)
6. motor behavior / movement
7. (i)
8. the relations between objects / the interpretation
of the seen world
9. the intensity of light
10. an object
11. the brain
12. printing errors
*********************************************************************
Topic 1
On the opposite page, discuss
the effects of unplanned urban expansion.
The following points are
given as guidelines. You may use these or any other points you wish to.
Points:
-
overcrowding
-
crime
-
housing
(unlawful, unauthorized, unsafe)
-
unrest
(social, psychological)
-
social
services (education, security, health, infrastructure, traffic, etc…)
-
unemployment
-
social
values
-
aesthetics
(It is recommended that you
organize your thoughts before you write and check your work after you have
finished. You may use the space below for your notes.)
Write about one page.
You
have 40 minutes.
Topic 2
Do you agree or disagree?
On the opposite page, write
an essay taking the following points into consideration. You may use these or any
other points you wish to.
For Against
- end suffering -
religious and ethical considerations
- reduce financial burden
(e.g. family, -
new medical discoveries
hospital, government)
- patients’ freedom of
choice -
conflict over the decision-maker
It is recommended
that you organize your thoughts before you write and check your work after you
have finished. You may use the space below for your notes.
Write about one page.